Self-rated health, time of residence and social determinants of health in immigrant populations: A complex relationship in groups of different origins in a Southern European region.

Health of immigrant population changes with time of residence and under the effect of social determinants of health. This study analyses the health status of the immigrant population in the Basque Country according to groups of origin assessing the effect of time of residence on health in the different origin groups considering social and migration-related determinants of health. A cross-sectional study of the immigrant population in the Basque Country using the Foreign Origin Population Survey was conducted. A descriptive analysis is performed of each group of origin and Poisson models are applied. The main variable is self-rated health, and the independent variables are divided into three groups: demographic, socioeconomic and migration-related. For the study, immigrants are divided into six origin groups. Results show that the health and the effects of socioeconomic and migratory variables on health vary according to origin. Immigrants with greater economic difficulties present poorer health, though to different extents and the effects on health of educational level and perception of discrimination differ according to origin. Finally, the relation between time of residence and self-rated health varies according to origin: Colombian, Ecuadorian, Peruvian, Eastern EU and sub-Saharan immigrants living in Spain for 10 or more years report poorer health even when controlling for socioeconomic and migration-related variables, while people from the Maghreb and Asia do not. Therefore, the effects on health of time of residence, living conditions and the migratory experience differ according to migrant group, leading to the importance of analysing the health of immigrants as a heterogeneous group.

The lived experience of receiving and providing antenatal care during the Covid-19 crisis in Southern Europe: An exploratory qualitative study.

OBJECTIVE: The Covid-19 pandemic led to a reorganization of antenatal care including the cancellation or shift into telemedicine of consultations and restrictions to the presence of an accompanying person. The aim was to explore healthcare professionals' and women's lived experience of such reorganisation consequences on the quality of care and specific challenges they faced, with a particular emphasis on telemedicine and equity. METHODS: Exploratory qualitative study using semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions of women and healthcare providers in New Aquitaine (France) and in the Basque Country (Spain). We collected data from a purposive sampling of women (n = 33) and professionals (n = 19) who had received or provided antenatal care in hospitals and ambulatory facilities between March 2020 and December 2021. Participants' narratives were thematically analysed to identify themes that were subsequently contextualised to the two territories. RESULTS: Antenatal care professionals and pregnant women experienced strong emotions and suffered from organizational changes that compromised the quality and equity of care. The pandemic and associated restrictions were sources of emotional distress, fear and loneliness, especially among more disadvantaged and isolated women. Among professionals, the lack of adequate means of protection and the multiple changes in caring protocols generated burnout, feeling of abandonment and emotional distress. CONCLUSIONS: The Covid-19 experience should serve to critically consider the unexpected consequences of reorganising healthcare services and the need to meet patients' needs, with a particular consideration for disadvantaged groups. Future scenarios of telemedicine generalisation should consider a combination of in presence and remote consultations ensuring antenatal care quality and equity.

De la consulta presencial a la teleconsulta: experiencias de profesionales de atención primaria del País Vasco durante la pandemia / From face-to-face consultation to teleconsultation: Primary health care professionals’ experiences in the Basque Country during the pandemic

Objetivo: Explorar las percepciones de profesionales de Atención Primaria (AP) sobre los cambios en las modalidades de consulta y su impacto en los fundamentos de la AP durante la pandemia. Diseño: Investigación cualitativa de diseño exploratorio realizada entre octubre y noviembre de 2021. Emplazamiento: Cuatro centros de salud urbanos y uno rural con diferente perfil socioeconómico en los tresterritorios del País Vasco. Participantes: Cuarenta y seis profesionales de distintas categorías del equipo de AP y directores/as de centros de salud.Método: Muestreo intencional. Cinco grupos focales y cuatroentrevistas en profundidad. Análisis temático con apoyo del programa Atlas.Ti. Triangulación de los resultados entre el equipo investigador. Resultados: Las vivencias sobre el desarrollo de la teleconsulta aparecen directamente condicionadas por el contexto pandémico en sus diferentes fases y por la situación de la AP. Los y las profesionales identificaron barreras comunicacionales, así como potencialidades de su uso que requieren de formación y evaluación adecuadas. Se percibieron riesgos de inequidad en la utilización de las teleconsultas que podrían estar afectando a la calidad asistencial. La longitudinalidad se valoró como un factor facilitador y se identificaron problemas en la coordinación y comunicación mediante teleconsulta entre niveles asistenciales. Conclusiones: La sustitución de la consulta presencial por la teleconsulta tuvo impacto en aspectos fundamentales de la AP como la calidad, accesibilidad, equidad, coordinación y longitudinalidad. La teleconsulta en AP requiere siempre ser evaluada considerando las circunstancias y los contextos concretos de su implementación

Objective: To explore the perceptions of Primary Health Care (PHC) professionals on changes in consultation modalities and their impact on PHC fundamentals during the pandemic. Design: Qualitative exploratory research conducted between October and November, 2021. Location: Four urban and one rural primary health care centers with different socioeconomic profiles in the threeterritories of the Basque Country. Participants: Forty-six professionals from different categories of the PHC team and health centre directors.Method: Purposive sampling. Five focus groups and fourin-depth interviews. Thematic analysis with the support of the Atlas.ti programme. Triangulation of results among the research team. Results: Experiences with the development of teleconsultation appear to be directly conditioned by the pandemic context in its different phases and by the PC situation. The professionals identified communication barriers, as well as potentialities of its use that require adequate training and evaluation. Risks of inequity were perceived in the use of teleconsultations that could be affecting the quality of care. Longitudinality was assessed as a facilitating factor and problems of coordination and communication through teleconsultation between care levels were identified. Conclusions: The replacement of face-to-face consultation by teleconsultation had an impact on fundamental aspects of PHC such as quality, accessibility, equity, coordination and longitudinality. Teleconsultation in PHC should always be evaluated considering the specific circumstances and contexts of its implementation.(AU)

[From face-to-face consultation to teleconsultation: Primary health care professionals' experiences in the Basque Country during the pandemic]. / De la consulta presencial a la teleconsulta: experiencias de profesionales de atención primaria del País Vasco durante la pandemia.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the perceptions of Primary Health Care (PHC) professionals on changes in consultation modalities and their impact on PHC fundamentals during the pandemic. DESIGN: Qualitative exploratory research conducted between October and November, 2021. LOCATION: Four urban and one rural primary health care centers with different socioeconomic profiles in the threeterritories of the Basque Country. PARTICIPANTS: Forty-six professionals from different categories of the PHC team and health centre directors. METHOD: Purposive sampling. Five focus groups and fourin-depth interviews. Thematic analysis with the support of the Atlas.ti programme. Triangulation of results among the research team. RESULTS: Experiences with the development of teleconsultation appear to be directly conditioned by the pandemic context in its different phases and by the PC situation. The professionals identified communication barriers, as well as potentialities of its use that require adequate training and evaluation. Risks of inequity were perceived in the use of teleconsultations that could be affecting the quality of care. Longitudinality was assessed as a facilitating factor and problems of coordination and communication through teleconsultation between care levels were identified. CONCLUSIONS: The replacement of face-to-face consultation by teleconsultation had an impact on fundamental aspects of PHC such as quality, accessibility, equity, coordination and longitudinality. Teleconsultation in PHC should always be evaluated considering the specific circumstances and contexts of its implementation.

Trends and determinants of social inequities in cardiovascular risk factors in Spain: a mixed-methods study.

This sequential mixed-methods study aims to: 1) assess spatial and temporal trends in cardiovascular risk factors by socioeconomic position from 2001 to 2020 in Spain; 2) explore public health professionals' perspectives regarding interventions that might have impacted these inequities; and 3) analyze determinants on social inequities in cardiovascular risk factors. First, we will measure the change in absolute and relative social inequities in eight cardiovascular risk factors through time trend analysis using repeated cross-sectional data from both National and European Health Surveys for Spain from 2001 to 2020. Second, we will interview key informants -both at the regional and national level-, to contextualize data obtained in phase 1 and capture the content and variation of policies across regions. Third, we will use econometric methods to analyze how these identified interventions have impacted these social inequities within and across regions.

Trends and determinants of social inequities in cardiovascular risk factors in Spain: a mixed-methods study / Tendencias y determinantes de las inequidades sociales en el riesgo cardiovascular en España: estudio de métodos mixtos

This sequential mixed-methods study aims to: 1) assess spatial and temporal trends in cardiovascular risk factors by socioeconomic position from 2001 to 2020 in Spain; 2) explore public health professionals’ perspectives regarding interventions that might have impacted these inequities; and 3) analyze determinants on social inequities in cardiovascular risk factors. First, we will measure the change in absolute and relative social inequities in eight cardiovascular risk factors through time trend analysis using repeated cross-sectional data from both National and European Health Surveys for Spain from 2001 to 2020. Second, we will interview key informants —both at the regional and national level—, to contextualize data obtained in phase 1 and capture the content and variation of policies across regions. Third, we will use econometric methods to analyze how these identified interventions have impacted these social inequities within and across regions. (AU)

Este estudio tiene por objetivos: 1) evaluar las tendencias espacio-temporales de los factores de riesgo cardiovascular en España, por posición socioeconómica, entre 2001 y 2020; 2) explorar las perspectivas de profesionales salubristas con respecto a las intervenciones que pueden influir en estas inequidades; 3) analizar los determinantes de las inequidades sociales en los factores de riesgo cardiovascular. Primero se medirá el cambio en las desigualdades, en términos absolutos y relativos, según ocho factores de riesgo mediante un análisis de tendencias temporales y datos de las encuestas nacionales y europeas de salud para España entre 2001 y 2020. Después se entrevistará a informantes clave, en los ámbitos de comunidad autónoma y nacional, para contextualizar los datos obtenidos en la primera fase y explorar la variabilidad entre comunidades autónomas. Por último, se analizará mediante métodos econométricos cómo influyen dichas intervenciones en las desigualdades sociales entre comunidades autónomas. (AU)

Desigualdad de género y medicalización de la salud mental: factores socioculturales determinantes desde el análisis de percepciones expertas / Gender inequality and mental health medicalization: Sociocultural determining factors from the analysis of expert perceptions Departamento de Sociología y Trabajo Social

Objetivo: Identificar las raíces socioculturales que explican la mayor frecuencia de diagnósticos de depresión y/o ansiedad y de prescripción de psicofármacos en las mujeres, con el fin de proponer un marco explicativo preliminar para la investigación de las desigualdades de género en la salud mental y su medicalización. Diseño: Estudio cualitativo con un diseño descriptivo-interpretativo, a través de entrevistas en profundidad realizadas en enero y febrero de 2021. Emplazamiento Las entrevistas se realizaron en diversas ciudades del País Vasco, Barcelona y Madrid. Participantes y/o contexto: Se incluyeron 12 personas expertas en género y salud mental del ámbito clínico (Atención Primaria y Salud Mental), académico y asociativo. Método: Muestreo intencional, siguiendo la técnica de bola de nieve, hasta cubrir la diversidad de perfiles previamente identificados y la saturación del discurso. Se realizó un análisis de contenido temático partiendo de una perspectiva epistemológica crítica-realista. Resultados: Los factores principales identificados que pueden explicar las desigualdades de género en los diagnósticos de depresión o ansiedad y de prescripción de psicofármacos fueron 1) La subordinación material y simbólica de las mujeres, 2) el papel de las ciencias «psi» en la patologización de lo femenino, 3) los sesgos epistemológicos y androcéntricos de la biomedicina, y 4) la agencia activa de las mujeres en los procesos de medicalización. Conclusiones: La reducción de las desigualdades de género en los diagnósticos y la prescripción de psicofármacos requerirá de la intervención conjunta en los planos clínico, comunitario y estructural que, desde una perspectiva feminista, logren revertir la posición de vulnerabilidad socioeconómica, simbólica y epistémica de las mujeres.(AU)

To identify the sociocultural roots that explain the higher frequency of diagnoses of depression and/or anxiety and the prescription of psychotropic drugs in women, in order to propose a preliminary explanatory framework for the investigation of gender inequalities in mental health and its medicalization. Qualitative study with a descriptive–interpretive design, through in-depth interviews conducted in January and February 2021. Interviews were held in various cities of the Basque Country, Barcelona and Madrid. 12 experts in gender and mental health from the clinical (Primary Care and Mental Health), academic and associative fields. Intentional sampling, following the snowball technique, until covering the diversity of previously identified profiles and the saturation of the discourse. An analysis of thematic content was carried out starting from a critical-realistic epistemological perspective. The main dimensions to explain gender inequalities in diagnoses of depression or anxiety and prescription of psychoactive drugs were: 1) the material and symbolic subordination of women, 2) the role of «psi» sciences in the pathologization of the feminine identity, 3) the epistemological and androcentric biases of biomedicine, and 4) the active agency of women in medicalization processes. The reduction of gender inequalities in the diagnoses and prescription of psychotropic drugs will require joint intervention at the clinical, community and structural levels that, from a feminist perspective, manage to reverse the socioeconomic, symbolic and epistemic vulnerability of women.(AU)

[Gender inequality and mental health medicalization: Sociocultural determining factors from the analysis of expert perceptions]. / Desigualdad de género y medicalización de la salud mental: factores socioculturales determinantes desde el análisis de percepciones expertas.

To identify the sociocultural roots that explain the higher frequency of diagnoses of depression and/or anxiety and the prescription of psychotropic drugs in women, in order to propose a preliminary explanatory framework for the investigation of gender inequalities in mental health and its medicalization. Qualitative study with a descriptive-interpretive design, through in-depth interviews conducted in January and February 2021. Interviews were held in various cities of the Basque Country, Barcelona and Madrid. 12 experts in gender and mental health from the clinical (Primary Care and Mental Health), academic and associative fields. Intentional sampling, following the snowball technique, until covering the diversity of previously identified profiles and the saturation of the discourse. An analysis of thematic content was carried out starting from a critical-realistic epistemological perspective. The main dimensions to explain gender inequalities in diagnoses of depression or anxiety and prescription of psychoactive drugs were: 1) the material and symbolic subordination of women, 2) the role of «psi¼ sciences in the pathologization of the feminine identity, 3) the epistemological and androcentric biases of biomedicine, and 4) the active agency of women in medicalization processes. The reduction of gender inequalities in the diagnoses and prescription of psychotropic drugs will require joint intervention at the clinical, community and structural levels that, from a feminist perspective, manage to reverse the socioeconomic, symbolic and epistemic vulnerability of women.

Soledad no deseada, salud y desigualdades sociales a lo largo del ciclo vital / Unwanted loneliness, health and social inequalities throughout the life cycle

Objetivo: Analizar la prevalencia de soledad no deseada en nuestro contexto y su asociación con la salud desde una perspectiva del ciclo vital y las desigualdades sociales. Método: Estudio transversal a partir de los datos de la Encuesta de Salud del País Vasco (n = 7.228; tasa de respuesta 79%). Se analizaron la prevalencia de soledad no deseada, su asociación con la salud percibida y la salud mental, y las desigualdades sociales según clase social. Para analizar la asociación se calcularon razones de prevalencia (RP) ajustadas por edad calculadas a partir de modelos de Poisson de varianza robusta. Resultados: El sentimiento de soledad no deseada afecta al 23,3% de los hombres y al 29,7% de las mujeres, siendo mayor en las personas de edad avanzada y en adultos jóvenes, y en las clases sociales más desfavorecidas. Sentirse solo/a se asocia con una peor salud, tanto general (RPa hombres 2,11, intervalo de confianza del 95% [IC95%] 1,77-2,51; RPa mujeres 2,10, IC95% 1,83-2,41) como mental (RPa hombres 3,95, IC95% 3,15-4,95; RPa mujeres 3,50, IC95% 2,99-4,12). Las desigualdades sociales en la soledad, así como la asociación entre esta y la mala salud, fueron mayores entre las personas adultas jóvenes. Conclusiones: Los resultados del estudio tienen importantes implicaciones para la intervención en la reducción y la prevención de la soledad no deseada, destacando la importancia del ciclo vital y las desigualdades sociales. (AU)

Objective: To analyse the prevalence of unwanted loneliness in our context and its association with health from a life cycle and social inequalities perspective. Method: Cross-sectional study based on data from the Health Survey of the Basque Country (n = 7.228; response rate 79%). The prevalence of unwanted loneliness, its association with perceived health and mental health, and social inequalities according to social class were analysed. To analyse the association, age-adjusted prevalence ratios (PR) calculated from robust Poisson models were calculated. Results: The feeling of unwanted loneliness affects 23.3% of men and 29.7% of women, being higher in older people and young adults, and in the most disadvantaged social classes. Feeling alone is associated with worse health, both general (PRa men 2.11, 95% confidence interval [95%CI] 1.77-2.51; PRa women 2.10, 95%CI 1.83-2.41) and mental (PRa men 3.95, 95%CI 3.15-4.95; RPa women 3.50, 95%CI 2.99-4.12). Social inequalities in loneliness, as well as the association between it and poor health, was greater among young adults. Conclusions: The results of the study have important implications for intervention in the reduction and prevention of unwanted loneliness, underlining the importance of the life cycle and social inequalities. (AU)

Social Inequalities in Health Determinants in Spanish Children during the COVID-19 Lockdown.

The COVID-19 lockdown was imposed in a context of notable inequalities in the distribution of the social determinants of health. It is possible that the housing conditions in which children and their families experienced the confinement, and the adoption of healthy behaviors, may have followed unequal patterns. The aim was to describe social inequalities in housing conditions and in health-related behaviors among children during the lockdown in Spain. This cross-sectional study was based on data from an online survey collecting information on the child population (3-12 years) living in Spain (n = 10,765). The outcome variables used were several housing conditions and health-related behaviors. The socioeconomic variables used were financial difficulties and parents' educational level. Crude prevalence and prevalence ratios estimated using Poisson models were calculated. During lockdown, children from families with low educational levels and financial difficulties not only tended to live in poor housing conditions, but were also exposed to negative health determinants such as noise and tobacco smoke; they took less physical exercise, had a poorer diet, spent more time in front of screens and had less social contact. A notable social gradient was found in most of the variables analyzed. The results point to the need to incorporate the perspective of equity in the adoption of policies in order to avoid the increase of pre-existing social inequalities in the context of a pandemic.

¿Cómo medir el estatus migratorio de la población infantil y juvenil? Estudios sobre salud y desigualdades en salud en Europa / How to measure the migration status of the child and young population? Studies on health and inequalities in health in Europe

OBJETIVO: Analizar cómo se mide el estatus migratorio en la población infantil y juvenil en la literatura científica sobre salud y desigualdades sociales en salud en Europa. MÉTODO: Se realizó una búsqueda sistemática de publicaciones entre 2007 y 2017 en PubMed y Social Sciences Citation Index, en español, inglés y francés. Se incluyeron artículos realizados en Europa en los que se analizaran la salud o las desigualdades sociales en salud de la población menor de 18 años según su origen migratorio. Se realizó una descripción de las variables usadas para la medición del estatus migratorio. RESULTADOS: Se incluyeron 50 artículos. Veinte estudios analizaban alguna variable de salud perinatal, once de salud mental, nueve de salud dental y diez de otras variables. Las principales variables para definir el estatus migratorio fueron el país de nacimiento (32 estudios), tanto del niño o la niña como de la madre o de alguno de los progenitores, y en ocasiones de forma complementaria. Menos frecuente fue la utilización de la nacionalidad (15 estudios) del niño o la niña, o de los progenitores, especialmente la materna. El estatus migratorio se denomina de muy diferentes maneras, no siempre equiparables, y en ocasiones no se explicita claramente la variable utilizada. CONCLUSIONES: Existe una gran diversidad de formas de medir el estatus migratorio en la población infantil y juvenil. Son necesarios una mejor definición y un consenso para mejorar la comparabilidad temporal y geográfica del conocimiento en esta área, que ayude al diseño de políticas públicas encaminadas a reducir las desigualdades sociales en salud desde la infancia

OBJECTIVE: To analyse how the migration status of the child and young population is measured in the scientific literature on health and social inequalities in health in Europe. METHOD: A systematic search of the literature published in Spanish, English and French between 2007 and 2017 in PubMed and Social Sciences Citation Index was carried out. The included studies analysed health and social inequalities in health of a population under 18 years old according to its migration origin in Europe. The variables used to measure the migration status were described. RESULTS: 50 articles were included. Twenty studies analysed perinatal health, eleven mental health, nine dental health, and ten studies other variables. The main variables to define migration status were the country of birth (32 studies), either of the child, the mother, or one of the parents, and sometimes in a complementary way. Less frequent was the use of nationality (15 studies), of the child, or of the parents, especially the mother. Migration status is referred to in very different ways, not always comparable and sometimes the variable used is not clearly explained. CONCLUSIONS: There is a great diversity of ways to measure migration status in the child and young population. A better definition and consensus is needed to improve the temporal and geographical comparability of knowledge in this area, which will help to design public policies aimed at reducing social inequalities in health from childhood

[How to measure the migration status of the child and young population? Studies on health and inequalities in health in Europe]. / ¿Cómo medir el estatus migratorio de la población infantil y juvenil? Estudios sobre salud y desigualdades en salud en Europa.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse how the migration status of the child and young population is measured in the scientific literature on health and social inequalities in health in Europe. METHOD: A systematic search of the literature published in Spanish, English and French between 2007 and 2017 in PubMed and Social Sciences Citation Index was carried out. The included studies analysed health and social inequalities in health of a population under 18 years old according to its migration origin in Europe. The variables used to measure the migration status were described. RESULTS: 50 articles were included. Twenty studies analysed perinatal health, eleven mental health, nine dental health, and ten studies other variables. The main variables to define migration status were the country of birth (32 studies), either of the child, the mother, or one of the parents, and sometimes in a complementary way. Less frequent was the use of nationality (15 studies), of the child, or of the parents, especially the mother. Migration status is referred to in very different ways, not always comparable and sometimes the variable used is not clearly explained. CONCLUSIONS: There is a great diversity of ways to measure migration status in the child and young population. A better definition and consensus is needed to improve the temporal and geographical comparability of knowledge in this area, which will help to design public policies aimed at reducing social inequalities in health from childhood.

[Unwanted loneliness, health and social inequalities throughout the life cycle]. / Soledad no deseada, salud y desigualdades sociales a lo largo del ciclo vital.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the prevalence of unwanted loneliness in our context and its association with health from a life cycle and social inequalities perspective. METHOD: Cross-sectional study based on data from the Health Survey of the Basque Country (n = 7.228; response rate 79%). The prevalence of unwanted loneliness, its association with perceived health and mental health, and social inequalities according to social class were analysed. To analyse the association, age-adjusted prevalence ratios (PR) calculated from robust Poisson models were calculated. RESULTS: The feeling of unwanted loneliness affects 23.3% of men and 29.7% of women, being higher in older people and young adults, and in the most disadvantaged social classes. Feeling alone is associated with worse health, both general (PRa men 2.11, 95% confidence interval [95%CI] 1.77-2.51; PRa women 2.10, 95%CI 1.83-2.41) and mental (PRa men 3.95, 95%CI 3.15-4.95; RPa women 3.50, 95%CI 2.99-4.12). Social inequalities in loneliness, as well as the association between it and poor health, was greater among young adults. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the study have important implications for intervention in the reduction and prevention of unwanted loneliness, underlining the importance of the life cycle and social inequalities.

Salud y determinantes sociales de la salud en hijos e hijas de personas inmigrantes internacionales: ¿desigualdades sociales en salud desde la infancia? / Health and determinants of health in second generations of international immigrants: Social inequalities in health since childhood?

Objetivo: Analizar las desigualdades sociales en salud entre la población infanto-juvenil de origen inmigrante de países de renta baja y la población de origen autóctono en el País Vasco. Método: Estudio descriptivo transversal a partir de los datos de la Encuesta de Salud del País Vasco 2013. Como variables resultado se utilizaron variables de estado de salud, conductas y condiciones de vida. Se calcularon razones de prevalencia calculadas a partir de modelos de Poisson robustos. Resultados: Los/las hijos/as de progenitores inmigrantes tienen peor estado de salud percibido, mayor prevalencia de obesidad, dedican más horas a actividades sedentarias y viven en hogares con mayores dificultades económicas. Las diferencias persistieron incluso tras ajustar por la clase social y el nivel educativo de los progenitores. Conclusiones: El estatus migratorio constituye un eje de desigualdad en salud de gran relevancia y ejerce su influencia más allá de su generación. Resulta necesario implementar medidas efectivas y adecuadas a esta realidad, que aseguren una vida en buenas condiciones de salud y una reducción de las desigualdades sociales en salud, no solo en los/las niños/as, sino también a lo largo de todo el ciclo vital

Objective: To analyse the social inequalities in health between children and youth population of an immigrant origin from low-income countries and those of native origin in the Basque Country. Method: Cross-sectional descriptive study using data from the Basque Country Health Survey 2013. Variables of health, behaviours and life conditions were used as the outcome variables. Prevalence ratios were calculated using robust Poisson models. Results: The children with immigrant parents had poorer self-rated health, a higher prevalence of obesity, spent more hours in sedentary activities and lived in households with greater economic difficulties. The differences persisted even after adjusting for social class and educational level of parents. Conclusions: A migrant background is a highly relevant axis of health inequalities and has an influence beyond a generation. Given this reality, it is necessary to implement effective and suitable measures to ensure life with good health conditions and to reduce social inequalities in health, not only in childhood but through the entire life cycle

[Health and determinants of health in second generations of international immigrants: Social inequalities in health since childhood?] / Salud y determinantes sociales de la salud en hijos e hijas de personas inmigrantes internacionales: ¿desigualdades sociales en salud desde la infancia?

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the social inequalities in health between children and youth population of an immigrant origin from low-income countries and those of native origin in the Basque Country. METHOD: Cross-sectional descriptive study using data from the Basque Country Health Survey 2013. Variables of health, behaviours and life conditions were used as the outcome variables. Prevalence ratios were calculated using robust Poisson models. RESULTS: The children with immigrant parents had poorer self-rated health, a higher prevalence of obesity, spent more hours in sedentary activities and lived in households with greater economic difficulties. The differences persisted even after adjusting for social class and educational level of parents. CONCLUSIONS: A migrant background is a highly relevant axis of health inequalities and has an influence beyond a generation. Given this reality, it is necessary to implement effective and suitable measures to ensure life with good health conditions and to reduce social inequalities in health, not only in childhood but through the entire life cycle.

Perceived discrimination and self-rated health in the immigrant population of the Basque Country, Spain / Discriminación y salud percibida en la población inmigrante del País Vasco (España)

Objective: To examine the effect of perceived discrimination and self-rated health among the immigrant population in the Basque Country, Spain, and determine whether this effect varies according to region of origin, age, sex and education. Methods: Descriptive cross-sectional study. The study population included immigrants aged 18 and older residing in the Basque Country. Data from the 2014 Foreign Immigrant Population Survey (n=3,456) were used. Log-binomial regression was used to quantify the association between perceived discrimination and self-rated health before and after checking for the selected characteristics. Results:Almost 1 in 10 immigrant adults reports perceiving discrimination. In adjusted analyses, the immigrants perceiving discrimination were almost were 1.92 more likely to rate their health as poor (prevalence ratio: 1.92; 95% CI: 1.44-2.56) than those who did not report discrimination. This association did not vary according to region of origin, age, sex or educational level. Conclusions: Perceived discrimination shows a consistent relationship with perceived health. Moreover, this association did not depend on the region of origin, age, sex or educational level of immigrants. These results show the need for implementing inclusive policies to eliminate individual and institutional discrimination and reduce health inequalities between the immigrant and native populations (AU)

Objetivo: Examinar el efecto de la discriminación en la salud percibida en la población inmigrante en el País Vasco y si este efecto es explicado por las diferencias en la región de origen, la edad, el sexo y la educación. Métodos: Estudio descriptivo transversal cuya población de estudio fue la población inmigrante de 18 años y más de edad, en el País Vasco. Los datos proceden de la Encuesta de Población Inmigrante Extranjera 2014 (n=3456). Se utilizó la regresión log binomial para medir la asociación entre la discriminación y la salud percibida antes y después de controlar por las características seleccionadas. Resultados: La discriminación fue referida por casi uno de cada 10 inmigrantes. En los análisis ajustados, los inmigrantes que refirieron discriminación tuvieron 1,92 de probabilidad de tener mala salud (razón de prevalencia: 1,92; intervalo de confianza del 95%: 1,44-2,56) en comparación con quienes no la refirieron. Esta asociación no cambió según la región de origen, el sexo ni el nivel de estudios. Conclusiones: La percepción de discriminación muestra una consistente relación con la salud percibida. Además, esta relación no depende del lugar de origen, la edad, el sexo ni el nivel de estudios de los inmigrantes. Estos resultados muestran la necesidad de implementar políticas inclusivas que eliminen la discriminación, tanto individual como institucional, para reducir las desigualdades en salud entre la población inmigrante y la autóctona (AU)

Perceived discrimination and self-rated health in the immigrant population of the Basque Country, Spain.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the effect of perceived discrimination and self-rated health among the immigrant population in the Basque Country, Spain, and determine whether this effect varies according to region of origin, age, sex and education. METHODS: Descriptive cross-sectional study. The study population included immigrants aged 18 and older residing in the Basque Country. Data from the 2014 Foreign Immigrant Population Survey (n=3,456) were used. Log-binomial regression was used to quantify the association between perceived discrimination and self-rated health before and after checking for the selected characteristics. RESULTS: Almost 1 in 10 immigrant adults reports perceiving discrimination. In adjusted analyses, the immigrants perceiving discrimination were almost were 1.92 more likely to rate their health as poor (prevalence ratio: 1.92; 95% CI: 1.44-2.56) than those who did not report discrimination. This association did not vary according to region of origin, age, sex or educational level. CONCLUSIONS: Perceived discrimination shows a consistent relationship with perceived health. Moreover, this association did not depend on the region of origin, age, sex or educational level of immigrants. These results show the need for implementing inclusive policies to eliminate individual and institutional discrimination and reduce health inequalities between the immigrant and native populations.

The role of birthplace and educational attainment on induced abortion inequalities.

BACKGROUND: Induced abortion (IA) has shown social inequality related to birthplace and education with higher rates of IAs in immigrant and in less educated women relative to their native and highly educated counterparts. This study examined the independent and joint effects of birthplace and education on IA, repeated and IA performed during the 2nd trimester of pregnancy among women residing in the Basque Country, Spain. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional population-based study of IA among women aged 25-49 years residing in the Basque Country, Spain, between 2011 and 2013. Log-binomial regression was used to quantify the independent and joint effects of birthplace and education attainment on all outcomes. RESULTS: Immigrant women exhibited higher probability of having an IAs (PR: 5.31), a repeated (PR: 7.23) or a 2nd trimester IAs (PR: 4.07) than women born in Spain. We observed higher probabilities for all outcomes among women with a primary or less education relative to those with a graduate education (All IAs PR: 2.51; repeated PR: 6.00; 2nd trimester PR: 3.08). However, no significant heterogeneity was observed for the effect of education on the association of birthplace with IAs, repeated or 2nd trimester IAs. CONCLUSIONS: Birthplace and education are key factors to explain not only an IA decision but also having a repeated or a 2nd trimester IA. However, the effects of birthplace and education may be independent from each other on these outcomes. A better understanding of these factors on IAs is needed when designing programs for sexual and reproductive health aimed to reduce inequalities among women.

The Impact of Fiscal Policies on the Socioeconomic Determinants of Health.

There has been considerable recent debate around the alleged impact of discretionary fiscal policies - especially austerity policies - on health and health inequalities. Assuming that most of the impact will have to run via the effect of fiscal policies on socioeconomic determinants of health (SDH), it is of interest to gain a further understanding of the relationship between fiscal policies and SDH. Therefore, the aim of this article is to review the recent evidence on the impact of discretionary fiscal policies on key SDH, i.e. income, poverty, education, and employment, in high income OECD countries. We find that there are no simple answers as to how fiscal policy affects those determinants of health. The effects of contractionary and expansionary fiscal policies on the analyzed SDH vary considerably across countries and will largely depend on the pre-crisis situation. Contractionary fiscal policies seem to have increased poverty, while their impact on income inequality will be influenced by the composition of the implemented measures. More empirical research trying to directly link fiscal policies to health outcomes, while taking into account of some of the mechanisms encountered here, would be worthwhile.

Austeridad y privatización sanitaria en época de crisis: ¿existen diferencias entre las comunidades autónomas? Respuesta / Differences in austerity and healthcare privatisation between autonomous communities in times of crisis in Spain. Replay

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